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| Coptic cemeteries |
Funerary Rituals and Burial Methods in Prehistoric Egypt
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| Prehistory cemeteries |
In the heart of the Egyptian desert and along the banks of the Nile, the first signs of burial rituals and burial methods began in prehistoric times, which is before the beginning of known writing and history around 3200 BC. This period reveals a society that was not primitive as believed but rather had a symbolic and spiritual sense that enabled it to develop burial practices that indicate an early belief in life after death and the connection of humans with the earth, nature, and the universe. Dr. Khaled Saad, the General Director of Prehistoric Antiquities, stated that ancient humans had a set of burial rituals for the dead. Initially, humans lived in forests, but due to a type of climate change, they moved to live in caves. When someone died, ancient humans would dig a simple hole in the ground to bury the dead and would cover the body with a collection of stone pieces. This was the oldest type of burial in the world and is called "cairn graves," which are widely spread in Egypt and many countries around the world. After some time, the burial rituals changed when ancient Egyptians noticed that some animals were digging in these cairn graves and disturbing the bodies. They began to deepen the hole and then started building shaft tombs, followed by shaft tombs with rooms, then two-room shaft tombs, then shaft tombs topped with a platform, and finally, they reached the pyramid shape. This evolution in the shape of tombs occurred with the development of ancient Egyptians over time, and the pyramid shape continued during the Old Kingdom and the Middle Kingdom.
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| Prehistory cemeteries |
Dr. Khaled Saad confirmed that not much information has been mentioned about the farewell of the deceased or the burial process because most of what has been discovered consists of rock inscriptions or colored drawings. Fortunately, in the "Wadi Suwa" cave, a collection of very primitive drawings was discovered, dating back about 12,000 years, showing features of the deceased. The deceased was drawn in this cave in an unusual way, depicted as "upside down," along with some individuals who might be performing some funerary ritual or perhaps offering a type of sacrifice. Archaeological excavations in sites like "Nekada," "Al-Badari," "Faiyum," and "Maadi" indicate that the residents of Egypt before the dynasties (around 4500 - 3100 BC) practiced burial within precise rituals. The dead were buried in oval-shaped holes, often in a fetal position (usually on the left side), facing west. The choice of the fetal position for the dead can be interpreted as a return to the womb of the earth, a direction that later became associated with the concept of death due to the sunset. Interestingly, the idea of orienting towards the west in burial appeared in these times, perhaps linked to astronomical observations and natural cycles, especially since the Egyptians had a close connection to the phenomena of the sun and moon. This orientation would later become the foundation of the Pharaonic funerary belief system.
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| Prehistory cemeteries Funerary Rituals and Burial Methods in Ancient Egypt |
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| Funerary Rituals in Ancient Egypt |
Since the dawn of civilization, the ancient Egyptians believed that death was not the end of life, but the beginning of a new journey in the afterlife. Therefore, the funerary rituals in ancient Egypt were not just temporary ceremonies; they were a complete system of beliefs, sciences, and arts that evolved over the ages of the dynasties, from the First Dynasty until the end of the Pharaonic era. The master's researcher in Egyptian antiquities, Abeer Mohamed, explained the funerary rituals and burial practices in ancient Egypt, saying: we can trace the various rituals that were followed when burying the deceased in ancient Egypt through many texts and scenes depicted on the walls of tombs. From these documented scenes, we can define the stages that the burial process went through from the moment of death until the closing of the tomb. It begins with the funeral procession leaving the deceased's home. After the death occurs, the body is placed in a coffin carried by a group of people who leave the deceased’s home heading towards the river. We find many scenes that clearly depict moments of crying and mourning for the deceased by his family and relatives, especially women who are weeping. After reaching the riverbank, the coffin is placed in a special boat known as "Shabti," which is used to transport the body to the embalming chamber located on the other bank near the cemetery. A common ritual that accompanies the transportation of the body is burning incense. Then, we move to the phase of the funeral boat on the way to the embalming chamber, where the coffin is placed in the boat for sailing to the embalming chamber, which was called "House of Anubis for Embalming."
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| Embalming stage in Ancient Egypt |
Abeer Mohamed continued that after this, the embalming stage begins. The ancient Egyptians believed that the soul (Ba, Ka, Akh) returns to the body in the afterlife, and to ensure this, the body must be preserved in the best possible condition. This led to the development of the art of embalming and complex architectural tombs. Embalming processes started in the early dynastic period but reached their peak in the New Kingdom. In the embalming chamber, the following takes place: it starts with the process of "removing the internal organs," which is where the stomach, intestines, lungs, and liver are taken out. Then, the brain is extracted through the nostrils using a twisted metal tool designed for this purpose. After that, an opening is made in one side of the body to remove the organs inside the abdominal cavity. This cavity is filled with a powder of myrrh and other fragrant substances. Then comes the process of "drying the body," which uses natron (a natural mixture of salts) for 40 days. The body is then washed and wrapped in linen strips soaked in an adhesive liquid. This process is done to protect it from moisture, and amulets are placed between the layers to protect the soul, as these funerary amulets were essential, such as the scarab, the Eye of Horus, the Djed pillar, and the heart amulet. These were placed among the mummy's wrappings to ensure protection. A statue called "Shabti," which would serve the deceased in the afterlife, was also buried with them. The parts extracted from the body, like the brain, lungs, stomach, kidneys, and intestines, were also embalmed and preserved separately in containers called canopic jars. This process was not only scientific but also ritualistic, as the priests would recite spells to ensure the peace of the soul. After the embalming, we move to the stage of the procession to the tomb, and then to the purification rituals.
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| opening the mouth operation |
Before the burial, rituals like "opening the mouth" are performed, so the deceased can breathe and speak in the afterlife. A funeral procession accompanies the body, led by priests, carrying statues, jars, and amulets, and reciting hymns from the "Book of the Dead" and performing incense rituals. Upon reaching the burial site, the mummy is carried and placed in front of the tomb, where women and relatives weep at its feet, and one of the priests performs the purification using a vessel known as "Nemset." Then, the mouth-opening ritual takes place, and the priest responsible for this task is called the "Sem" priest. After that, the coffin is transferred to the tomb where the rituals are performed to protect the tomb from being opened again. The ancient Egyptians buried their dead on the western bank of the Nile River, where the sun sets, symbolizing the end and the beginning of another life. The tombs of priests, officials, and kings were all oriented towards the western horizon.
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| Funerary Rituals in Ancient Egypt |
Funeral Rites in Egypt during the Ptolemaic Period
The Ptolemies paid great attention to respecting Egyptian religious beliefs, especially concerning life after death. This droves them to maintain the traditions of embalming and building tombs. However, they made some changes to the shapes of coffins and statues, as we saw funeral masks that showed the deceased's face in a Greek style. The Ptolemaic tombs, especially in Alexandria, represent an artistic mix of Egyptian and Greek architecture, like the famous tombs of Kom el-Shoqafa, which include a tomb with decorations blending statues of the god Anubis wearing Greek armor and columns with Corinthian capitals. A new type of religious worship also appeared, such as the worship of the god "Serapis," which is a mix of the Egyptian god Osiris and the Greek god Zeus. This aimed to unite Egyptians and Greeks under a single belief. Despite this, wealthy families did not stop using the Book of the Dead; instead, they developed new versions decorated in a Greek artistic style. They also used Egyptian amulets like the Eye of Horus but added Greek symbols to emphasize this blending.
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| Funeral Rites in the Ptolemaic Period |
Embalming was still a basic part of funerary rituals, but the materials and techniques evolved a little. Some Greek elements were introduced into the rituals, such as placing coins in the mouth of the mummy, which was a custom that was strange to the Egyptians but was based on Greek beliefs about crossing the River Styx in the afterlife.
Funeral Rites in Ancient Greece
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| Funeral Rites in Ancient Greece |
The funerary rituals in ancient Greece were a central part of community life, reflecting a deep understanding of life and death, the individual’s place in society, and their relationship with the gods. The rituals would begin right after death, where the body would be washed, perfumed, and wrapped in a white cloth (the shroud). A coin would then be placed in the mouth of the deceased as payment for Charon, who transports souls across the River Styx to the underworld. This belief is a central part of Greek mythology. After that, a funeral procession (ekphora) would take place, often in the early hours of the morning, with relatives and friends participating, carrying lamps and chanting funeral hymns. Women would play the role of mourners, expressing their sorrow dramatically through loud crying and tearing their clothes. The burial process varied between burying the body in the ground or cremating it, with the ashes placed in clay pots called "amphorae." These pots were often buried in designated graves or family tombs.
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| Funeral Rites in Ancient Greece |
Funeral Rites in Ancient Rome
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Funeral Rites in Ancient Rome
In ancient Rome, funerary rituals showed a great respect for the dead, and they were social institutions in themselves, emphasizing family identity and the individual's status in society. It was believed that spirits that were not buried properly could return to disturb the living, so the preparation of the body was done carefully. This included closing the deceased's eyes, washing and perfuming the body, and wrapping it in clothes suitable for their social status. A coin was also placed in the mouth of the deceased to help them cross to the underworld. The funeral procession was one of the most important stages of the ritual and included family members, professional mourners, musicians, and possibly wax figures of the deceased's ancestors that were carried out in the procession. The procession would pass through the streets of the city and stop at the forum, where a eulogy (laudatio) would be given, listing the virtues of the deceased.
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Funeral Rites in Ancient Rome
The burial process varied depending on social class: the rich would cremate their bodies and place the ashes in marble urns inside luxurious family tombs, while the poor would be buried in simple graves outside the city walls. It was believed that the soul would not rest unless buried outside the city limits. Families would hold funerary feasts (silocia) at the cemetery to honor the deceased, and offerings would be made to them regularly. The Roman state also dedicated festivals like "Parentalia" and "Feralia" to celebrate the spirits and renew the connection between the living and the dead. Romans would also set up stone tablets decorated with inscriptions praising the deceased and documenting their achievements, and these traditions helped historians understand the nature of Roman society.
Burial Rites in Coptic Egypt
In Egypt, where religions blended and civilizations were drawn on the walls of time, the dawn of Christianity emerged in the early centuries AD, bringing with it new ideas about death and resurrection. The Coptic era in Egypt was not just a religious transition; it was a revolution in human understanding of the afterlife, marking the birth of unique funerary rituals that reflected a deep theological view of life after death.
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| Coptic cemeteries |
Coptic tombs are not just final resting places; they are stone messages of faith. Some symbols appear on the walls and panels, and some of them keep colored drawings that represent scenes from the life of saints, such as the cross, the fish, grapes, and redemption. In "Bawit," the oldest city of Coptic tombs in the Wadi Natrun and the Kharga Oasis, we see domes and walls decorated with drawings from the Torah and the Gospel. The tombs blend architectural simplicity with the depth of Coptic theology. In Alexandria, we find the tombs of "the seven brothers" and "the church of St. Theodore," which highlight the stages of the development of funerary and Coptic art between the fourth and seventh centuries AD.
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| Coptic cemeteries |
Although "Fayum portraits" predate the Coptic era, their influence continued, as they are considered the early signs of depicting the deceased on coffins. These portraits, which were attached to the mummy, reflect the intersection of Egyptian identity with the emerging Christian faith in a funerary art that immortalizes the person in their living features.
Burial Rites in Islamic Egypt
With the arrival of Islam in Egypt in the seventh century AD, burial rituals changed drastically to align with the new teachings brought by the Islamic faith. These teachings focus on the simplicity of the rituals and reverence for the afterlife. In Islamic belief, death is not the end; it is a transition to another world, where one will be judged and rewarded. From here, the funerary rituals in Islamic Egypt developed over the ages, from the Rashidun era to the modern state, combining faith, society, and history.
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| Muslim cemeteries |
When a Muslim dies, the rituals begin with washing the body according to religious rules. The deceased is washed three or five times, using water and the plant "sidr," which is a cleansing herb, and is perfumed with camphor. The body is then wrapped in a simple white shroud, consisting of three layers for men and five for women, reflecting the Islamic philosophy of humility and equality in death. The funeral prayer (Salat al-Janazah) is performed in congregation, either in the mosque or near the grave. This prayer has no bowing or prostration; the community stands behind the imam, raising their hands in prayer for the deceased, asking for forgiveness and steadfastness during questioning.
The body is then carried to the grave, often on shoulders, in a scene filled with silence and reverence. The deceased is placed in a grave dug in the ground, ideally on their right side, facing the Qibla (the direction of Mecca). The grave is then covered with stones or clay, and “dua al-tasbih” (a prayer for stability) is recited, asking for mercy for the deceased. In some areas, “lubbinas” or slabs of limestone are placed, especially in villages, to strengthen the walls of the grave.
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| Muslim cemeteries |
In the Egyptian countryside, local rituals that have accumulated over the centuries dominate. Among these is the "dhikr," which takes place after death, and the distribution of food to the mourners and the poor, like “bread with honey,” “fattah,” and the “feast” held on the third and seventh days. Tents for mourning are set up in the streets, where the Quran is recited by famous reciters, while people distribute bags of dates and water for the souls of their departed.
Thus, the Muslim Egyptian bids farewell to their loved ones not with luxury or extravagance, but with steady steps towards the grave, accompanied by a weeping voice saying, "Indeed, we belong to God, and indeed, to Him we shall return."
Funeral Rituals in Egypt Today
Despite the fast pace of life and the changing nature of societies, funeral rituals in Egypt still have a deep spiritual essence that reflects religious and cultural roots deeply rooted in history. In contemporary Egypt, burial rituals for Muslims and Copts take different forms, but they intersect in values of respect, prayer, and honoring the deceased.
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| Funeral of King Fouad I |
The funeral rituals for Muslims begin after the person's death and notifying the relevant authorities, especially in hospitals. The deceased is washed according to tradition, often in a mortuary attached to mosques or at home and is wrapped in white shrouds. Then, the funeral prayer is held at the mosque. After that, the deceased is transported in a hearse to the cemetery where the body is buried after reciting Al-Fatiha and prayers. Mourning takes different forms; in villages, it is held at the family home for three days, with the presence of the townspeople, during which the Quran is recited, coffee is offered, and dates are distributed. In cities, it is often held in a "mourning tent" equipped with chairs and fans, where verses from the Quran are read by famous reciters.
In the digital age, it has become common to share condolences via social media or by sending Quranic verses and condolence designs. Some families have started to prefer just one day to receive condolences or holding a "mixed condolence" in a fancy place, reflecting changing customs.
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| Muslim cemeteries |
Soad Omran shared those funeral rituals and burial in Upper Egypt about 60 years ago varied depending on the social class of the deceased's family. In wealthy families, it was common to sacrifice a large bull weighing about 200 kilograms for the deceased to be carried on the coffin, as the body would not leave the house until after this sacrifice. After leaving the house, they would go to the mosque to pray for the deceased and then walk to the grave while reciting prayers and remembrance phrases like "There is no god but Allah." Once they reach the grave, they would bury the body, and butchers would wait for the body to be taken out to start cutting it up and distributing most of it to the poor. A part must be kept for the deceased's family to eat on the day of death. The place of mourning in the deceased's house was called "majles," " المضيفة" ،which was divided into two parts: one for serving tea and the other for serving coffee. Mourning would last for seven days; for the first three days, sacrifices would be made and distributed to everyone who came to pay their respects, and on the remaining days, only drinks were served. On the seventh day, sacrifices would be made again and distributed to the poor and the deceased's family, as well as to everyone who came to pay their respects. On the fifteenth day after death, another "ختمة" would take place where the Quran would be completed, sacrifices would again be made and distributed to the poor and the deceased's family, and to everyone who came to offer their condolences. On the fortieth day after death, sacrifices would again be made for distribution to the poor from the deceased's house, and the "majles" " المضيفة" would be opened to receive people for condolences. The Quran would be completed on this day, known as the "forty ختمة," and "قرص" or " الكحك البلدي" would be baked and distributed to the poor in the graves. However, for the middle and lower classes, animals are not sacrificed; they only pray for the deceased and bury them due to financial limitations.
Soad Omran mentioned that the shape of the coffin has not changed until now; it remains the same, but its colors can vary between brown, yellow, and white, depending on the type of wood and social class. The coffin and the washing table (the piece of wood on which the deceased is washed and wrapped) are left in designated places as charity for those unable to buy them, and this place can be rented for a low price by those in need.
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| Muslim cemeteries |
Shaimaa Al-kady explained that there was a widely popular phenomenon about 100 years ago in Upper Egypt, but it has started to fade since the beginning of the millennium, about more than 20 years ago, due to the spread of education and religious culture in the governorates of Upper Egypt. This phenomenon was called "المعددة" or "الندابة," where three or four women would come to the deceased's house, which was considered a profession for which they were paid. She compared the work of "المعددة" to the elegies composed by poets in the pre-Islamic era because they would continuously say words in a sad singing style with wailing and lamenting, mentioning the deceased's virtues to make the mourners cry more, and they would remain for the first three days of mourning.
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| Muslim cemeteries |
When a Copt dies, the church arranges the rituals. The body is washed and often dressed in a suit or elegant dress, especially in cities, then placed in a simple or luxurious wooden coffin depending on the family's circumstances. A funeral service takes place in the church, and the deceased is transported to the cemetery in a church procession, led by prayers and hymns. Today's Coptic graves take the shape of domes or small, walled family graves.
The mourning takes place in the church or in a hall attached to it. Prayers are recited, and candles are lit for the soul of the deceased. The rituals of "remembrance on the third, seventh, and forty days" are still held, where special prayers are offered on these days, and "offerings" are distributed, sometimes including food, to the poor.
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Faika Tawfik shared her insights about Coptic funerals about 60 years ago, The practices varied among people, as some would sacrifice a sheep or bull when the deceased left their home, distributing it entirely to the poor and needy (the deceased's family is not allowed to consume from it), Among the funeral practices, the deceased is accompanied in a procession, with a group of deacons and priests walking in orderly lines in front and behind the coffin, accompanied by what is called "the mat of mercy," which resembles a large carpet carried by three deacons from each line, with a large cross in the middle and four small crosses at the edges. Some families bring children from orphanages to play hymns and funeral chants during the procession, describing paradise and invoking "eternal rest." They walk ahead of the hearse, which is in the shape of a large glass case with wooden legs on which three to eight horses dressed in different colors pull it, depending on the deceased's age. If the deceased is old, the festive outfit is brown, and if young, it is white. This hearse begins its journey from the deceased’s house, tours their area, then heads to the church for prayers before ending its route at the cemetery. The family shows the death certificate issued by the Egyptian government, after which the designated grave is opened, and the coffin, which contains the deceased dressed in white symbolizing spiritual purity is buried. The coffin's shape depends on each family's meaning, and its colors may also vary; it is brown for older deceased and white for younger ones. Inside, the coffin is lined and has decorative angel drawings on the lid, often topped with a carved or engraved cross. The designated priest prays over the deceased, and the people repeat after him, departing peacefully. The funeral is followed by the "remembrance" rituals on the third day, seventh day, and sometimes the fortieth day, believing that the soul passes through stages of transition toward the Kingdom.
The Egyptian does not die silently; instead, they are celebrated in their departure as they were in life. From the mosque to the church, and from sadness to hope, the funeral and burial rituals remain a true mirror of the Egyptian identity, where faith intertwines with tradition, and the spirit remains in all our prayers present, everlasting, and honored.